The Hampton Roads Peace Conference

Francis Blair

As the bloody Civil War raged on into 1865, nearly everyone on both sides longed for peace. There were some who believed that peace could be reached through negotiation, without one side winning a complete victory. One of these was Fancis Preston Blair, a northern politician and journalist who had close personal relations with many in the Confederate government. With Lincoln's permission, he traveled to Richmond in January, 1865 to propose a peace conference. Jefferson Davis was interested, if only to harden the Confederacy's resolve by showing that a negotiated peace was not possible. However, a major issue soon surface. Davis wrote to Lincoln that he was ready to receive a c omission “with a view to secure peace to the two countries.” Lincoln told Blair that he would receive any agent that Jefferson Davis “may informally send to me with a view to securing peace to the people of our one common country.” For Davis, the Confederacy's independence was non-negotiable, but Lincoln would only consider a proposal that resulted in a unified country.

Alexander Stephens

Blair, with help from Grant, was able to smooth over this difference, and a Peace Conference met. It was held on February 3^rd, 150 years today, on the Union steamer River Queen off Fort Monroe, Virginia. Representing the Union was Abraham Lincoln and Secretary of State William Seward. From the Confederacy was vice-president Andrew Stephens, who had broken with Davis and pushed for a speedy peace, Senator Robert Hunter of Virginia and John Campbell, former US Supreme Court Justice and Confederate Assistant Secretary of War.

John Campbell

Stephens opened the meeting by discussing the French invasion of Mexico. One of Blair's suggestions was the country could be reunified if the Civil War was halted with an armistice, and north and south united in sending an expedition to repel Napoleon III's invasion of Mexico. Lincoln, however, quickly cut him off, and turned to the question of sovereignty. Would there be one country or two? It was instantly apparent that the conference was useless. As John Campbell wrote, “We learned in five minutes that [Blair's] assurances to Mr. Davis were a delusion, and that union was the condition of peace.” Neither side would yield upon this crucial point.

Seward

The conference continued some time longer, with a discussion of slavery, a proposal from Lincoln to compensate to the south for their slaves, and whether if the southern states immediately surrendered they could reject the 13^th Amendment. The one result of the convention was that Lincoln promised to recommend that Grant reopen prisoner exchanges.

The River Queen

The main product of the meeting was propaganda material for both sides. Jefferson Davis could tell the South that he had tried his best to arrange a peace with the North, but they only terms they offered was absolute surrender. The Confederacy's only hope was to fight to the end. Abraham Lincoln could say that the south still remained unwilling to compromise on their independence, and the Yankee troops needed to fight the war to the finishing, reaping the complete fruits of victory with the abolition of slavery.

Lincoln on the River Queen several weeks later

Joseph Johnston Removed from Command

Johnston

One of the longest lasting Confederate generals in the American Civil War was Joseph E. Johnston. He was in command at Manassas, the first great battle of the war, and at the Bennett Place, the largest surrender of Confederate troops at the end of the war. He did not, however, have a good relationship with President Jefferson Davis. It was 150 years ago today that Davis removed him from command, frustrated with his defensive strategy in the face of Sherman's advance southward towards Atlanta.

For months Sherman and Johnston had maneuvered. Johnston took up strong defensive positions, trying to lure Sherman into wrecking his army against them. Time and again the Federals frustrated his plans by simply outflanking the Confederate line, and forcing Johnston to order a retreat. In this way, time after time, Johnston retreated through northern Georgia until he was at the gates of Atlanta. Sherman had attacked him once, at Kennesaw Mountain, and had received a serious bloodying from it. But the Federal general just returned back to his old outflanking ways. Johnston's plan was simply not working.

Hood

Jefferson Davis had long wished to relieve Johnston of command, but he did not have a good replacement for him. Finally he decided to replace him with John Bell Hood. It was a dangerous time to do it, with the army engaged with the enemy in front of Atlanta, but Davis believed if he waited, Johnston might abandon the city without a struggle. When the President asked Lee's advice on the change, he answered:

It is a grievous thing to change commander of an army situated as is that of the Tennessee. Still if necessary it ought to be done. I know nothing of the necessity. I had hoped that Johnston was strong enough to deliver battle.... Hood is a good fighter, very industrious on the battle field, careless off, & I have had no opportunity of judging of his action, when the whole responsibility rested upon him. I have a high opinion of his gallantry, earnestness & zeal. 

Davis made the decision and Johnston replaced Hood 150 years ago today. This change of commanders would rapidly alter the course of the campaign. Hood would move quickly and zealously to implement a very different strategy than that of Joseph E. Johnston.

Davis Suspends Habeas Corpus

Davis

One of the most common complaints of the people on either side of the Civil War was that the right to a writ of habeas corpus was suspended. Habeas corpus means in Latin, “you have the body.” It is used to prevent the government from illegally holding prisoners without having evidence to bring charges against them. The Constitutions of both the United States and Confederate States guaranteed the writ of habeas corpus, but allowed it to be suspended when necessary for the public safety. The Confederate Congress gave President Jefferson Davis that power several times during the Civil War, including 150 years ago today, on February 15, 1864. An act was passed suspending the writ in a list of enumerated cases, including treason, conspiracies to overthrow the government, and spying. This is in contrast to Abraham Lincoln, who first revoked the writ, and then had his actions approved by Congress.

Confederate Capitol

Davis met some opposition in these measures, most notably from Alexander Stephens, his vice-president. Stephens denounced Davis as a tyrant and returned home to Georgia, virtually abandoning his office. He gave a speech on the issue on March 16, 1864 to the Georgia Legislature. “In my judgment," he said, "this act is not only unwise, impolitic and unconstitutional, but exceedingly dangerous to public liberty." He believed that the Congress and President could suspend habeas corpus, but they were still restrained by another clause which forbid the removal of "of liberty, without due process of law."

Johnston Given Department of Tennessee

Johnston

After his defeat at the Battle of Chattanooga, Braxton Bragg, commander of the Confederate army, offered his resignation on November 29, and President Jefferson Davis quickly accepted it. But he had trouble deciding on a replacement. William Hardee, the senior corps commander, took over temporary command. But he did not want it permanently, having seen the responsibility and governmental politics it involved. He recommended Joseph E. Johnston, as did Polk, another corps commander. Davis did not like Johnston and doubted whether he was willing to attack the enemy. The only other officer in the Confederacy of that rank was P. G. T. Beauregard, and Davis thought he would be even worse. The generals and the soldiers wanted Joe Johnston, but many in Richmond were not sure he had what it took. But finally, after nearly a month, Davis accepted the inevitable, and gave Johnston command of the Confederate army.

William Hardee

Lee Resigns

Lee

 150 years ago today, with the Gettysburg campaign over, Robert E. Lee wrote a letter of resignation to Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederacy. He had led the greatest invasion into Federal territory, but had been defeated. He said:

Camp Orange, August 8, 1863

His Excellency Jefferson Davis,
President of the Confederate States

Mr. President,
... We must expect reverses, even defeats. They are sent to teach us wisdom and prudence, to call forth greater energies and to prevent our falling into greater disasters. Our people have only to be true and united, to bear manfully the misfortunes incident to war, and all will come right in the end.

I know how prone we are to censure and how ready to blame others for the non-fulfillment of our expectations. This is unbecoming in a generous people, and I grieve to see its expression. The general remedy for the want of success in a military commander is his removal. This is natural, and in many instances, proper. For, no matter what may be the ability of the officer, if he loses the confidence of his troops disaster must sooner or later ensue.

I have been prompted by these reflections more than once since my return from Pennsylvania to propose to Your Excellency the propriety of selecting another commander for this army. I have seen and heard of expression of discontent in the public journals at the result of the expedition. I do not know how far this feeling extends in the army. My brother officers have been too kind to report it, and so far the troops have been too generous to exhibit it. It is fair, however, to
suppose that it it does exist, and success is so necessary to us that nothing should be risked to secure it. I therefore, in all sincerity, request Your Excellency to take measures to supply my place. I do this with the more earnestness because no one is more aware than myself of my inability for the duties of my position. I cannot even accomplish what I myself desire. How can I fulfill the expectations of others? In addition I sensibly feel the growing failure of my bodily strength. ... Everything, therefore, points to the advantages to be derived from a new commander, and I the more anxiously urge the matter upon Your Excellency from my belief that a younger and abler man than myself can readily be attained. I know that he will have as gallant and brave an army as ever existed to second his efforts, and it would be the happiest day of my life to see at its head a worthy leader -- one that would accomplish more than I could perform and all that I have wished. I hope Your Excellency will attribute my request to the true reason, the desire to serve my country, and to do all in my power to insure the success of her righteous cause.

I have no complaints to make of any one but myself. I have received nothing but kindness from those above me, and the most considerate attention from my comrades and companions in arms. To Your Excellency I am specially indebted for uniform kindness and consideration. You have done everything in your power to aid me in the work committed to my charge, without omitting anything to promote the general welfare. I pray that your efforts may at length be crowned with success, and that you may long live to enjoy the thanks of grateful people.

With sentiments of great esteem, I am, very respectfully and truly, yours,

R.E. Lee,
General

Davis

In this letter Lee exhibited some of his greatest characteristics. He did not try to blame others for his defeat, but accepted responsibility for his actions. He was grateful, thanking Davis for what he had done for him, and asked that a better man be appointed to his place. But Davis had no better man. He trusted Lee and had a relationship like he had with few other of his commanders. Throughout much of the war he would be fruitlessly searching for a competent commander for the west. Removing Lee would only make the command problem worse. Davis replied a few days later:

Richmond, VA., August 11, 1863.
General R. E. Lee,
Commanding Army of Northern Virginia.

General: Yours of the 8th instant has been received. I am glad that you concur so entirely with me as to the wants of our country in this trying hour, and am happy to add that, after the first depression consequent upon our disasters in the West, indications have appeared that our people will exhibit that fortitude which we agree in believing is alone needful to secure ultimate success.

It well became Sidney Johnston, when overwhelmed by a senseless clamor, to admit the rule that success is the test of merit, and yet there is nothing which I have found to require a greater effort of patience than to bear the criticisms of the ignorant, who pronounce everything a failure which does not equal their expectations or desires, and can see no good result which is not in the line of their own imaginings. I admit the propriety of your conclusions, that an officer who loses the confidence of his troops should have his position changed, whatever may be his ability; but when I read the sentence, I was not at all prepared for the application you were about to make. Expressions of discontent in the public journals furnish but little evidence of the sentiment of an army. ...

Were you capable of stooping to it, you could easily surround yourself with those who would fill the press with your laudations and seek to exalt you for what you have not done, rather than detract from the achievements which will make you and your army the subject of history, and object of the world's admiration for generations to come. …

But suppose, my dear friend, that I were to admit, with all their implications, the points which you present, where am I to find that new commander who is to possess the greater ability which you believe to be required? I do not doubt the readiness with which you would give way to one who could accomplish all that you have wished, and you will do me the justice to believe that, if Providence should kindly offer such a person for our use, I would not hesitate to avail of his services.

... To ask me to substitute you by someone in my judgment more fit to command, or who would possess more of the confidence of the army, or of reflecting men in the country, is to demand an impossibility.

It only remains for me to hope that you will take all possible care of yourself, that your health and strength may be entirely restored, and that the Lord will preserve you for the important duties devolved upon you in the struggle of our suffering country for the independence of which we have engaged in war to maintain.

As ever, very respectfully and truly,
Jefferson Davis

Confederate cabinet

Lee Proposes Invasion of North

Lee

Lee had won a glorious victory in the Battle of Chancellorsville, but he had been unable to completely destroy the Union army. The war was not progressing well for the south in other theaters and Grant was making progress towards the capture of Vicksburg, Mississippi. It seemed that unless something was done, the city was doomed. Lee also believed that even only considering Virginia, he would eventually have to go on the offensive again, or the fighting would turn into a siege which the Confederacy would not be able to maintain.

This left the Confederacy with two options. Lee could fall back to the defenses around Richmond and send a large portion of his army to try to help Vicksburg, or he could embark on another invasion of the North. He chose the latter, and went to Richmond 150 years ago today for a multi-day conference with high ranking Confederates.

Jefferson Davis

It was hoped that an invasion would accomplish a few purposes. First, it would demoralize the northern populace, and it might convince the government in Washington to pull troops from Vicksburg to meet Lee's threat. Second, the food supply in Virginia was diminishing, and it was getting harder and harder to find supplies in the places through which the armies and marched and counter marched. Moving north he could live off the enemy's country. And third, always in the back of Lee's mind was the thought that if he gained a great victory on the Union's own ground, he might finally be able to follow up on his victory, capture Washington, and perhaps even end the war. Lee believed continued defeats would mean that Lincoln would loose the election next November, and if Lincoln lost the election doubtless the war would end. He wrote to his wife:

If we can baffle them in their various designs this year, next fall there will be a great change in public opinion at the North. The Republicans will be destroyed & I think the friends of peace will become so strong as that the next administration will go in on that basis. We have only therefore to resist manfully ... [and] our success will be certain.

It was for all these reasons that Lee decided, with the agreement of the government in Richmond, to attempt another invasion of the north.

Richmond Bread Riot

Confederate Money

Although the majority of southerners supported the war effort and voted for secession, it was not unanimous. There was a sizable belt of opposition centered in the Appalachian Mountains from West Virginia down to western North Carolina. West Virginia. The opposition during the war was fueled by the Confederacy’s financial problems. 

One problem both sides faced during the war was rampant inflation. They turned to printing paper money to help pay for the war. However this increased the money supply, raising prices and decreasing the value of everyone's money. The problem was more acute in the Confederacy. The North approximately doubled its money supply during the war, the South increased theirs by 20 times. Inflation rapidly increasing prices in the south, quickly doubling, tripping and quadrupling. At the beginning of 1863 a barrel of flower could be bought for $70, but by the end of the war it would cost $250. That barrel of flower would have been only $10 when the war began.

Richmond Bread Riot

Complaints from the southern people came to a crisis in Richmond on April 2nd, 1863. There had been a drought in 1862 and much of the food that was grown was destroyed by moving armies. Food was scarce and very expensive. The riot began when a woman named Mary Jackson riled up a crowd by complaining of the cost of food. Pulling out a revolver and bowie knife, she led a crowd of 300 women with shouts of "Bread! Bread!" The governor came out and read the Riot Act, but the mob ignored him, smashing the windows of shops and stealing not only food, but anything they could lay their hands on. A company of milita was brought out, and Jefferson Davis himself came to try to disperse the crowd. Reached into his pockets, he pulled out all the money he had and thew it to the rioters, shouting:

You say you are hungry and have no money. Here is all I have. It is not much, but take it. We do not desire to injure anyone, but this lawlessness must stop. I will give you five minutes to disperse. Otherwise you will be fired on.

The women, knowing that Davis was not making an idle threat, began to disperse. Davis was able to quell this riot with the threat of the soldiers rifles, but there were others elsewhere throughout the south. Similar events occurred in Georgia, Alabama and North Carolina. Although they turned out not serious in and of themselves, they were signs of growing discontent with the government.

Jefferson Davis

Civil War Thanksgivings of 1862

Thanksgiving in Camp

 Although Thanksgiving as we know it on the fourth Thursday of November. did not come into being until 1863, during 1862 Presidents Davis and Lincoln both appointed times of thanksgiving, although on different days than those to which we are accustomed.

Abraham Lincoln declared a day of thanksgiving on April 10th, 1862, with this proclamation:

It has pleased Almighty God to vouchsafe signal victories to the land and naval forces engaged in suppressing an internal rebellion, and at the same time to avert from our country the dangers of foreign intervention and invasion.
It is therefore recommended to the people of the United States that at their next weekly assemblages in their accustomed places of public worship which shall occur after notice of this proclamation shall be have been received they especially acknowledge and render thanks to our Heavenly Fathers for these inestimable blessings, that they then and there implore spiritual consolation in behalf of all who have been brought into affliction by the casualties and calamities of sedition and civil war, and that they reverently invoke the divine guidance for our national counsels, to the end that they may speedily result in the restoration of peace, harmony, and unity throughout our borders and hasten the establishment of fraternal relations among all the countries of the earth.
In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed.
Done at the city of Washington, this 10th day of April A.D. 1862, and of the Independence of the United States the eighty-sixth.
ABRAHAM LINCOLN

 Davis did the same a few months later, on September 4th, 1862, after the great victory at Manassas:

Once more upon the plains of Manassas have our armies been blessed by the Lord of Hosts with a triumph over our enemies.  It is my privilege to invite you once more to His footstool, not now in the garb of fasting and sorrow, but with joy and gladness, to render thanks for the great mercies received at His hand.  A few months since, and our enemies poured forth their invading legions upon our soil.  They laid waste our fields, polluted our altars and violated the sanctity of our homes.  Around our capital they gathered their forces, and with boastful threats, claimed it as already their prize.  The brave troops which rallied to its defense have extinguished these vain hopes, and, under the guidance of the same almighty hand, have scattered our enemies and driven them back in dismay.  Uniting these defeated forces and the various armies which had been ravaging our coasts with the army of invasion in Northern Virginia, our enemies have renewed their attempt to subjugate us at the very place where their first effort was defeated, and the vengeance of retributive justice has overtaken the entire host in a second and complete overthrow.
To this signal success accorded to our arms in the East has been graciously added another equally brilliant in the West.  On the very day on which our forces were led to victory on the Plains of Manassas, in Virginia, the same Almighty arm assisted us to overcome our enemies at Richmond, in Kentucky.  Thus, at one and the same time, have two great hostile armies been stricken down, and the wicked designs of their armies been set at naught.
In such circumstances, it is meet and right that, as a people, we should bow down in adoring thankfulness to that gracious God who has been our bulwark and defense, and to offer unto him the tribute of thanksgiving and praise.  In his hand is the issue of all events, and to him should we, in an especial manner, ascribe the honor of this great deliverance.
Now, therefore, I, Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States, do issue this, my proclamation, setting apart Thursday, the 18th day of September inst., as a day of prayer and thanksgiving to Almighty God for the great mercies vouchsafed to our people, and more especially for the triumph of our arms at Richmond and Manassas; and I do hereby invite the people of the Confederate States to meet on that day at their respective places of public worship, and to unite in rendering thanks and praise to God for these great mercies, and to implore Him to conduct our country safely through the perils which surround us, to the final attainment of the blessings of peace and security.
Given under my hand and the seal of the Confederate States, at Richmond, this fourth day of September, A.D.1862. 
JEFFERSON DAVIS

Davis on the Defense of the Confederacy

150 years ago today, Confederate president Jefferson Davis wrote to Alabama Governor John Gill Shorter in response to a letter requesting more resources to defend Mobile, and in his reply he touched on some of the Confederacy's greatest problems.

My Dear Sir: Your letter of October 22 has been received, and I have given it my earnest consideration. I entirely concur with you as to the immense importance of Mobile and the adjacent county and the unfortunate results that would follow its fall. I have felt long and deeply the hazard of its condition and an anxious desire to secure it, but have vainly looked for an adequate force which could be spared from other localities. The enemy greatly outnumber us and have many advantages in moving their forces, so that we must often be compelled to hold position and fight battles with the chances against us. Our only alternatives are to abandon important points or to use our limited resources as effectively as the circumstances will permit.

Battle of Seven Pines - Day 1

After retreating from the Peninsula Johnston and McClellan stopped just short of Richmond and settled in settled positions. McClellan's army was divided by the Chickahominy River. Much of the area was swampy, and when the army first arrived the river could easily be crossed. However, rain began to fall and the swamps turned into rivers. Sluggish streams now became sizable barriers to army movement. Joseph E. Johnston was looking for an opportunity to attack. In a few months without having fought a major battle he had been maneuvered by McClellan from northern Virginia to the gates of Richmond without having fought a major battle. Johnston decided he would change that. At first an attack was made more necessary because McDowell's troops was going to be brought down from Fredericksburg to join McClellan, however this was called off to make an attempt to capture Stonewall Jackson in the valley, giving Johnston a few more days to prepare. Johnston was ready on May 30th, and orders were distributed for a march the next day.

Chickahominy River

On the face of it, the plan seemed rather simple. McClellan's forces to the north of the river would be distracted by skirmishing while most of the army converged by several roads on the Federal troops south of the river. However, coordinating army movements by various roads was very difficult, and Johnston's subordinates would find plenty of room for failure on their march on May 31st. Johnston's orders were badly written, and left plenty of room for mistakes. Longstreet decided to switch the road his men would march on, which delayed the advance greatly.

The battle finally opened after 1 pm, five hours after when Johnston had planned. But even then all the Confederates had not gotten into position. D. H. Hill had simply gotten impatient so he ordered his men forward without the others in place. Hill's men charged the earthworks, and finally were able to break through the Union line, which was held by inexperienced troops. Hill's men were reinforced and they attacked the second Union line. With hard fighting they were able to drive back the Federals, but Union reinforcements had arrived. Edwin Sumner was ordered to cross with his crops to the south side of the river, but the engineers said that the one bridge remaining, Grapevine Bridge, was about to collapse and a crossing was impossible. “Impossible!?” Sumner said, “Sir, I tell you I can cross! I am ordered!” Sumner was an old soldier and used to obeying orders, and this day he was able. The bridge did not break until after he got his men across.

Franklin's corps retreating

Because of an acoustic shadow produced by the lay of the land Johnston did not hear the sound of the battle opening. However, Longstreet eventually told him that the battle had begun. Towards evening he arrived on the field, instructing his subordinates in preparation for the morrow's battle. As he rode through the twilight he was struck in the shoulder by a bullet. Almost immediately a shell burst overhead, and Johnston was hit again with a fragment. He fell unconscious from his horse and was carried to the rear. On the way back he encountered Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee, who had rode out from Richmond to see the battle. Davis told Johnston of his regret of his wounding, and began to think of someone to replace him. The second in command, G. W. Smith assumed command, but when Davis met with him he knew he would not do. Smith had no plans and could not take the strain of army command. He became sick and in a few days would leave the army. On their way back to Richmond, Davis told Lee that he would appoint him the new commander of the army. This choice would not be without controversy. Lee had been one of the nation's foremost soldiers before the war, but his standing had been somewhat tarnished by his campaign in West Virginia in which he had been able to mount a successful attack on the Union forces. His men called him Evacuating Lee and King of Spades. Jefferson Davis however was still his friend and he had confidence in him. As time went on it was apparent to everyone that this change of command was the most important result of the Battle of Seven Pines.

Robert E. Lee

Johnston Abandons Yorktown Lines

In early 1862, General George B. McClellan with his grand Union Army of the Potomac had been transported by sea to Fort Monroe on the Virginia Peninsula, in an attempt to get closer for a strike at Richmond. Moving up the Peninsula he had encountered 15,000 men under "Prince" John Magruder. Although they were no match for McClellan's 125,000 soldiers, McClellan could not believe the Confederate forces were that week so he decided to settle in for a regular siege. Joseph E. Johnston, commander of the main Confederate army, wrote to Robert E. Lee that, "No one but McClellan could have hesitated to attack."

150 years ago today after just under a month McClellan's siege lines were finally complete. His men had spent weeks digging entrenchments, building roads, and hauling forward dozens of heavy artillery. McClellan was prepared to unleash a terrific bombardment on the morning of May 5th to prepare for an eventual infantry assault. Allan Pinkerton, in charge of the army's intelligence, reported a minimum of 100,000 Confederates in the opposing works.

Union mortars

The Confederates however were not going to be waiting for the attack. Johnston, who had joined Magruder on the Peninsula was actually outnumbered two to one by McClellan. He had written a few days before, "The fight for Yorktown ... must be one of artillery, in which we cannot win. The result is certain; the time only doubtful.... I shall therefore move as soon as can be done conveniently...." Now with the Federal trenches approaching the Confederate lines, was a convenient time. Therefore, 150 years ago tonight, Johnston ordered a bombardment of the Union trenches, his heavy guns firing randomly at McClellan's lines. Under the cover of this fire, the infantry pulled out, leaving empty trenches and 70 pieces of antiquated heavy artillery for McClellan's men to find the next morning. As found, written on the wall of a tent in the abandoned camp was a message from a rebel, "He that fights and runs away, will live to fight another day." That fighting would soon come as the Confederate army retreated north toward Richmond.

Jefferson Davis on the Trent Affair

Jefferson Davis

150 years ago Jefferson Davis gave a message to Congress. You can read the full message here. He made these comments on the Trent Affair.

"[N]ot content with violating on the rights under the law of nations at home, they have extended these injuries to us within other jurisdictions. The distinguished gentlemen whom, with your approval, at the last session, I commissioned to represent the Confederacy at certain foreign Courts, have been recently seized by the captain of a United States ship-of-war, on board a British steamer.... These gentlemen were as much under the jurisdiction of the British Government upon that ship, and beneath its flag, as if they had been upon its soil; and a claim on the part of the United States to seize them in the streets of London would have been as well founded as that to apprehend them where they were taken."

Confederate Ambassadors Appointed

James Mason

Today, 150 years ago, three ambassadors were sent by the Confederate government to Europe to be ambassadors there. One of the South's main hopes for victory was through foreign intervention. They knew the North had more men and resources, but many of the leaders hoped that foreign nations would come to their aid because of their need for cotton. A large part of England's economy came from processing the South's cotton, but they could not get any during the war because the North was blockading the South. So the South hoped that King Cotton would bring them on their side.

John Slidell

The three ambassadors sent were James Mason to England, John Slidell to France, and Pierre A. Rost to Spain. However, two of these men would do the Confederacy their greatest service before they even arrived in Europe.

Pierre A. Rost

England Recognizes the Confederacy as a Belligerent

Queen Victoria

Today, 150 years ago, Queen Victoria of England issued a neutrality proclamation. It declared that they were neutral in the unfolding American Civil War, but it also recognized the Confederacy as a belligerent in the conflict. This did not mean that England thought they were a nation, but it did mean that they rejected the North’s claim that it was only an insurrection.

One of the things Jefferson Davis was counting on was European intervention, and this was a step in that direction. He knew that the North had superior man power and resources, but he also knew that the South produced cotton that Europe needed to continue their manufacturing. So he hoped that “King Cotton” would bring England, France and others over to his side. But the main obstacle that stood in the way of this was slavery. William Wilberforce was instrumental in abolishing slavery in England in the 1830s, and the English did not want to help the South because it owned slaves. Another obstacle was the fact that there had been a large cotton harvest the year before, and the warehouses were bulging with excess cotton. We will see how this played out over the next few years.

Arkansas Secedes, War Declared on the United States

Arkansas Militia

150 years ago today, both Tennessee and Arkansas voted to secede. Both were border states, and did not secede because of Lincoln's threat to slavery. They remained in the Union until Lincoln said that they must raise troops to attack their neighbors in the South. At that point they seceded, along with Virginia and more to come.

Arkansas said in their Ordinance of Secession:

[Abraham Lincoln] has, in the face of resolutions passed by this convention pledging the State of Arkansas to resist to the last extremity any attempt on the part of such power to coerce any State that had seceded from the old Union, proclaimed to the world that war should be waged against such States until they should be compelled to submit to their rule, and large forces to accomplish this have by this same power been called out, and are now being marshaled to carry out this inhuman design; and to longer submit to such rule, or remain in the old Union of the United States, would be disgraceful and ruinous to the State of Arkansas:¹

While the legislature of Tennessee was favorable to secession, they did not actually secede on this day. They called for a public vote on the issue instead.

On the same day Jefferson Davis signed a bill declaring a state of war with the United States, since they were being attacked by them. It said:

Whereas, the earnest efforts made by this government to establish friendly relations between the government of the United States and the Confederate States and to settle all questions of disagreement between the two governments upon principles of right, justice, equity and good faith, have proved unavailing, by reason of the refusal of the government of the United States to hold any intercourse with the Commissioners appointed by the government for the purposes aforesaid or to listen to any proposal they had to make for the peaceful solution of all causes of difficulties between the two governments; and

Whereas, the President of the United States of America has issued his Proclamation, making the requisition upon the states of the American Union for seventy-five thousand men, for the purpose as therein indicated of capturing forts,  and other strongholds of the jurisdiction of, and belonging to the Confederate States of America, and has detailed Naval armaments upon the coast of the Confederate States of America, and raised, organized and equipped a large military force to execute the purpose aforesaid, and has issued his other Proclamations announcing his purpose to set foot a blockage of the ports of the Confederate States;
...
The Congress of the Confederate States do enact, that the President of the Confederate States be, and he is hereby, authorized to use the land and naval forces for the purpose of ... resisting and repelling in such manner as he may deem advisable any and all acts of hostility or aggression that may be committed by said government.²

1. The American Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events of the year 1861 (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1867), vol. 1 p. 23.
2. Journal of the Congress of the Confederate States of America (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1904) vol. 1, p. 177-181.

"All We Ask is to be Let Alone"

Jefferson Davis

150 years ago today Jefferson Davis gave an important speech to the Confederate Congress in Montgomery. He began by announcing that all the seceded states had adopted the Confederate Constitution, and continued on to address issues that would probably come up during the coming war.

He quickly recounted the grievances of the south against the north and how a president had been elected who ran on the platform of abolishing slavery:

With interests of such overwhelming magnitude imperiled, the people of the Southern States were driven by the conduct of the North to the adoption of some course of action to avert the danger with which they were openly menaced. With this view the legislatures of the several States invited the people to select delegates to conventions to be held for the purpose of determining for themselves what measures were best adapted to meet so alarming a crisis in their history. ... In the exercise of [the] right [to redress grievances] so ancient, so well established, and so necessary for self-preservation, the people of the Confederate States, in their conventions, determined that the wrongs which they had suffered and the evils with which they were menaced required that they should revoke the delegation of powers to the Federal Government which they had ratified in their several conventions. They consequently passed ordinances resuming all their rights as sovereign and Independent States and dissolved their connection with the other States of the Union.

Davis said that the new Confederacy attempted to establish friendly terms with the nation which they had just left, but were refused. He told of the necessary attack on Fort Sumter, Lincoln's call for 75,000 men, the secession of Virginia, and the Confederate efforts to organize the government and raise troops for its defense. He concluded:

A people thus united and resolved cannot shrink from any sacrifice which they may be called on to make, nor can there be a reasonable doubt of their final success, however long and severe may be the test of their determination to maintain their birthright of freedom and equality as a trust which it is their first duty to transmit undiminished to their posterity. A bounteous Providence cheers us with the promise of abundant crops. The fields of grain which will within a few weeks be ready for the sickle give assurance of the amplest supply of food for man; whilst the corn, cotton, and other staple productions of our soil afford abundant proof that up to this period the season has been propitious. We feel that our cause is just and holy; we protest solemnly in the face of mankind that we desire peace at any sacrifice save that of honor and independence; we seek no conquest, no aggrandizement, no concession of any kind from the States with which we were lately confederated; all we ask is to be let alone; that those who never held power over us shall not now attempt our subjugation by arms. This we will, this we must, resist to the direst extremity. The moment that this pretension is abandoned the sword will drop from our grasp, and we shall be ready to enter into treaties of amity and commerce that cannot but be mutually beneficial. So long as this pretension is maintained, with a firm reliance on that Divine Power which covers with its protection the just cause, we will continue to struggle for our inherent right to freedom, independence, and self-government.

You can read the entire speech here.

Causes of the War State's Rights

As we have discussed on this blog before, slavery was the main issue that caused the Deep South States to secede, but secession did not necessarily mean war. This is a major misunderstanding about the Civil War today. When the North was considering whether or not to attack the South, the question was no longer about slavery. The question was whether or not the Southern states had a right to be allowed to leave the Union peacefully. The South viewed the United States as a confederation in which the states joined together for mutual protection. They joined freely, so they thought they could leave freely. However, the North believed that the states surrendered their sovereignty and could never regain it. It was this difference of understanding that caused the South to fight for freedom and the North to preserve the indissolvable Union.

Constitution

To start off, the U.S. Constitution does not clearly permit or forbid secession. The other founding documents convey contradictory impressions. When Virginia joined the Union they specifically reserved the right to secede. However, the Northwest Ordinance, an important bill passed by Congress regarding adding new states to the Union, forbade secession. There were differences of opinion regarding this right before the war, but as we will see, they were not clearly divided between North and South.

History of Secession

The 1860s were not the first time that states had threatened to leave the Union. It had also happened during several crises since the founding of America. At those times it had been debated whether the right to secede was retained by the states. What is interesting though is that several times it was not the South, but also the North that was arguing for secession. In the years directly proceeding the war the abolitionists urged their states to leave the Union because they thought it was wrong to be in a Union that also contained slaveholders. During one of their meetings in 1844:

... it was decided ... that fidelity to the cause of human freedom, hatred of oppression, sympathy for those who are held in chains and slavery in this republic, and allegiance to God, require that the existing national compact should be instantly dissolved; that secession from the government is a religious and political duty; that the motto inscribed on the banner of Freedom should be, NO UNION WITH SLAVEHOLDERS; ¹

These were the same men that in 1861 declared that they must fight to preserve the Union.

State Sovereignty

The debate over the legitimacy of secession really comes down to a different view of state sovereignty. Is the Union is a collection of states joined together for the common good, and still reserving much sovereignty to themselves, or did the states just become departments of the federal government? The Civil War resulted in a huge lose of the states' power, ignoring the Constitution and what the founders intended. The states were constitutionally intended to provide a check on the federal government and were to retain all power that they did not specifically delegate to the federal government. After the Southern states were defeated in their attempt to leave the Union, they were not let back in until they surrendered many of their original rights – even though the North claimed they had not even really left in the first place.

Bibically

One of the applications of the Bible to civil government that was made by the Reformers was the doctrine of interposition. This is the idea that the when the greater civil magistrates become wicked and tyrannical, the lesser civil magistrates are to lead the people to remove them. This is similar to what the South was trying to do in their secession. The state officials voted to leave the Union because it was trying to abolish the institution of slavery which they believed was ordained by God, and they formed a new union that would better fulfill the role of civil government.

Conclusion

While slavery served as a catalist, it did not cause the war. The war was fought over state's rights. Did states have the right to regulate their own laws and to leave the Union when it was no longer beneficial to them? As we will see later, the upper south did not secede because they thought Lincoln would abolish slavery. They seceded because they were ordered to attack their brethren who had left the Union.

I will close with a quote from Jefferson Davis after the war:

Secession ... is to be justified upon the basis that the States are sovereign. There was a time when none denied it. I hope the time may come again, when a better comprehension of the theory of our Government, and the inalienable rights of the people of the States, will prevent any one from denying that each State is a sovereign, and thus may reclaim the grants which it has made to any agent whomsoever.

Jefferson Davis

1. The Constitution A Pro-Slavery Compact (New York: American Anti-Slavery Society, 1845) p. 101 Source. 

Jefferson Davis Inaugurated

Davis's Inauguration

Jefferson Davis was inaugurated on February 18th, 1861 as President of the Confederate States of America. The ceremony took place in Montgomery, Alabama, the capital of the new nation. At the same time as this event was occurring, Abraham Lincoln was traveling from Illinois to Washington, DC for his inauguration which would happen on March 4th.

After being escorted to the steps of the capital building by a military guard in a carriage drawn by six horses, Jefferson Davis gave a short speech. He affirmed the right of the South to secede according to the principles of the Constitution of the United States. While Davis hoped that war would be avoided, he knew that it must be prepared for. He declared that if war came, it would be the North's responsibility:

Should reason guide the action of the Government from which we have separated, a policy so detrimental to the civilized world, the Northern States included, could not be dictated by even the strongest desire to inflict injury upon us; but, if the contrary should prove true, a terrible responsibility will rest upon it, and the suffering of millions will bear testimony to the folly and wickedness of our aggressors.

He concluded his speech with:

It is joyous in the midst of perilous times to look around upon a people united in heart, where one purpose of high resolve animates and actuates the whole; where the sacrifices to be made are not weighed in the balance against honor and right and liberty and equality. Obstacles may retard, but they cannot long prevent, the progress of a movement sanctified by its justice and sustained by a virtuous people. Reverently let us invoke the God of our fathers to guide and protect us in our efforts to perpetuate the principles which by his blessing they were able to vindicate, establish, and transmit to their posterity. With the continuance of his favor ever gratefully acknowledged, we may hopefully look forward to success, to peace, and to prosperity.

After taking the oath of office, Jefferson Davis became President of the Confederacy and undertook the duties of organizing the government and preparing for possible war with the United States.

Jefferson Davis Appointed President

Davis as President

After forming the Confederate States of America and adopting a Constitution, the convention in Montogermy, Alabama needed to choose a man as president of the new nation. On February 9th, 1861 they chose Jefferson Davis.

Jefferson Davis was born on June 3rd, 1808. He attended West Point and became a soldier. He was a military hero in the Mexican American War and later became the American Secretary of State. He served as a representative and senator in the US Congress from Missisippi. When Mississippi seceded he followed his state and went south. He gave a farewell address to the Senate, which you can read here, in which he said:

Then, Senators, we recur to the compact which binds us together; we recur to the principles upon which our Government was founded; and when you deny them, and when you deny to us the right to withdraw from a Government which thus perverted threatens to be destructive of our rights, we but tread in the path of our fathers when we proclaim our independence, and take the hazard. This is done not in hostility to others, not to injure any section of the country, not even for our own pecuniary benefit; but from the high and solemn motive of defending and protecting the rights we inherited, and which it is our sacred duty to transmit unshorn to our children.

He was one of the highest military and political leaders in the South at the time and was a qualified cantidate for the office. Personally he expected to be a military commander and was already head of the troops from Mississippi.

As president, Davis had both good and bad qualities. Ever since the Civil War people have claimed that his mistakes caused the South to loose the war. While he did make mistakes, he was fighting on the losing side and it was not his fault that the war was lost. He had problems in dealing with certain factions in the South, which included his vice president, Alexander Stephens. As the leader of the Confederate forces, he had strong friends and strong enemies. Some generals he loved and worked very well with, such as Robert E. Lee. Others' usefulness was hampered because he would not work with them.

After the war Davis was kept in prison for treason, and after his release he was a popluar figure throughout the South. He wrote several books defending the South and his own actions as its president. He died on December 6th, 1889. We will meet him again as the war progresses.

Alexander Stephens, his vice president